CHAPTER 27
	THE AGE OF CONTAINMENT, 1946-1954
	Nuclear missile
			STUDY GUIDE QUESTIONS
			a.1 Definition of Cold War and US foreign policy objectives a.2 Symmetry v. Asymmetry in Containment Policy, 1945-'90 a.2 Riga-Yalta Periods of the Cold War, 1917-1991 b.2 NSC-68 b.3 Origins of the Korean War b.4 Advance to the Yalu River b.5 Truman Fires MacArthur b.6 How the Korean War ended b.7 How the Korean War disrupted American Life c.9 McCarthy's Accusations f.3 Historians re-evaluate Eisenhower xword solution-scroll down
	[a.1]		DEFINITION OF COLD WAR
	Cold war dangerous		The term "Cold War" was first used in 1947 to explain US-Soviet relations. Simply put, the Cold War, a period lasting from 1945-1990, was a time during which the US and USSR employed every ideological, military, and political instrument against each other without actually waging a real war. Although the US and Russia never launched nuclear missiles against each other, the Cold War spawned dangerous trends, episodes and "brush-fire" wars. Some of the worst side-effects of the Cold War for America are listed below:
			McCarthyism Korean War (1950-53) Delay of Civil Rights Movement the theory of "mutually assured destruction" growth of the military-industrial complex Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) Vietnam War (1965-1973) Reagan's "evil empire" speech and the US decision to deploy Pershing II nuclear missiles to Europe (1983).
	Militarization creates national security state dominated by government		A militarized, permanent national security state prevailed with varying degrees of intensity within the two super-powers. Historians debate the starting date of the Cold War. Most agree, however, that containment of the USSR became global and, therefore, symmetrical, with NSC-68 and the Korean War. From 1950 forward the arms race, the draft, military interventions, and massive defense spending became permanent features of the American life.
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	[a.2]		SYMMETRY VS. ASYMMETRY IN CONTAINMENT POLICY 1945-1990
	Asymmetrical Containment		George Kennan's X-Telegram advocated asymmetrical containment. Only certain areas of the world were important to US security, Kennan implied, and hence, were places where the US should attempt to halt communism. Kennan's assessment sprang from his realist perspective that power has limits; that the United States could not assume military obligations around the globe. Kennan also wrote that the US could most effectively contain the USSR by politically and economically beefing up the countries bordering the USSR. Unable to expand, the Soviet Union would eventually break apart from within.
	Symmetrical Containment		NSC-68 was a clarion call for the US to contain the USSR with military force. Unlike the X-Telegram, NSC-68 attributed a "grand design" to the Kremlin and believed that the atomic bomb was the only weapon standing between western Europe and a Soviet takeover. NSC-68 implied that every part of the world represented a place where communists might test America's commitment to containment. Therefore the US had to defend everywhere, hence the term "symmetrical" containment.
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	[a.2]		RIGA-YALTA PERIODS OF THE COLD WAR, 1917-1990
	The sunny view		The blue bars indicate periods of relatively good US-Soviet relations. These periods take the name of "Yalta" because the that conference symbolizes wartime cooperation between the two powers.
	The icy view		The red bars represent the "Riga" axiom. The name derives from the Baltic city of Riga where American diplomats icily watched events in Russia after the 1917 revolution. At this time US diplomats consistently warned of the dangers Soviet communism posed to the survival capitalism. Therefore, Periods of poor US-Russian relations are given the name "Riga" axiom to reflect the deeper freezes of the Cold War.
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	[b.2]		NSC-68
	Reassessment of US foreign policy		Nineteen-forty nine forced a change in US containment strategy. The loss of China, the first Soviet nuclear explosion, and the Alger Hiss case prompted Truman to order a restudy of Soviet intentions. The result was NSC-68. NSC-68 was written by the Policy Planning Staff of the US State Department. The chair of the committee was Paul Nitze.
	The Soviet threat		NSC-68 remilitarized US foreign policy. It: concluded the Soviets would try to take over the free world by military force, if necessary. concluded the Soviets were dedicated to the overthrow of capitalism
	Prescription for winning the cold war		NSC-68 called for: remilitarization of US foreign policy. raising of taxes. more money spent on defense. US defense of every part of the free world, as it would be in remote regions that the communists might test US resolve. NSC-68 planners believed increased defense spending would raise the American standard of living. This was considered a nice "by-product" of Cold War thinking.
	Too hot to handle at first		NSC-68 appeared on the desk of President Truman in March 1950. Politically, it was too hot to handle (especially that part about taxes). The Korean War kicked it into gear, however. Defense spending went from $11 billion in 1949 to over $50 billion in 1950. Defense spending levels have remained high to the present day.
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	[b.3]		ORIGINS OF THE KOREAN WAR
	Civil war on the Korean peninsula		First and and foremost the Korean War was a civil war. The Korean War was a war between 2 dictatorial leaders who wanted to unify the country under one government. Kim Il Sun (north) and Syngman Rhee (south) were ready to go to war at the drop of a hat to attain their dream.
	Superpower rivalry		Neither the US or the USSR viewed the peninsula as a vital security area. The Chinese, however, did, which explains why they intervened in massive force in late 1950. When Stalin apparently signaled his approval, the North Koreans attacked. The US intervened in accordance with NSC-68, believing Korea to be the first major test of US resolve to contain communism.
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	[b.4]		ADVANCE TO THE YALU RIVER
	The push north		Flushed with victory after MacArthur's Inchon landings that virtually destroyed the North Korean Army (15 Sept. 1950), Truman, with UN approval, ordered UN forces north of the 38th parallel. This was a mistake. A northward move clearly went beyond the original goal of restoring South Korea's sovereignty. But Truman was under pressure from conservatives to "roll back" communist forces and teach them a lesson.
	The Chinese warning		As the US Eighth Army and X Corps move north, the Chinese warned MacArthur, the UN, and Truman not to come closer. The Yalu River dividing North Korea from Manchuria was a sensitive region for the Chinese because it contained industries and hydroelectric plants. MacArthur arrogantly refused to believe the Chinese would intervene.
	Chinese intervention in Korea		The Red Chinese sprang an unpleasant surprise in November 1950. Over one million Chinese troops infiltrated down the mountain rides that separated UN forces. They attacked with such ferocity that UN forces were forced to beat a hasty retreat. It was disastrous. Marines were blowing up ammunition to keep it from falling into communist hands; whole battalions of US army troops were destroyed as Chinese forces swept out of the mountains. MacArthur wired to Washington that, "we face an entirely new war."
	Seoul falls		In December 1950, Chinese forces captured Seoul, South Korea . It was the 2d time in the war that communist forces had taken the southern capital.
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	[b.5]		TRUMAN FIRES MACARTHUR
	MacArthur breaks civil-military protocols		Truman fired General MacArthur in April 1951 because MacArthur challenged the President's control of national policy. The Chinese intervention shocked the normally cocksure general. He alternated between episodes of despair and euphoria. In panic laced messages to the White House and Pentagon MacArthur spoke of pulling out of Korea one day then urged the bombing of the Manchuria side of the Yalu River, even with atomic weapons.
			Truman refused to bomb China and ordered MacArthur to fight a limited war in Korea.
	Truman must consider global demands of containment		The US had defense concerns that girdled the globe; As commander-in-chief, Truman would not gut the forces in Europe for transfer to Korea, thus weakening the defense of Europe--an area of far great strategic importance to the US than Korea. MacArthur as an "Asia Firster" and did not accept Truman conclusions. MacArthur was also unwilling to fight a limited war, believing there was "no substitute for victory," which in the American experience meant "total victory."
	MacArthur's big ego		When Truman refused to concur with this general's outlook, MacArthur made inappropriate statement to the press criticizing his commander-in-chief. Truman fired MacArthur with the full approval of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
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[b.6]		HOW THE KOREAN WAR ENDED
POW exchange was the hang-up		Proponents of World System theory Argue that men like Acheson, Dulles, Truman, and Harriman, intentionally prolonged the Korean War to allow NSC-68 time to kick in and become US containment policy (see Thomas McCormick, America's Half Century). The war lasted 3 years. The Chinese had given up demanding a seat in the United Nations, the annexation of Taiwan, and the unification of Korea. In 1953, Stalin died, which further weakened their desire to continue the war. But the issue of repatriation remained a thorny problem.
China want forcible repatriation		About 1/4 of the 100,000 North Korean and Chinese POW's did not want to return home. Likewise, 359 out of 13,444 UN POW's did not want to return. China wanted these men forcibly returned. The UN stood for voluntary return.
China concedes		It was not until the end of the war, June 1953, that China agreed to voluntary repatriation. A special United Nations commission headed by India supervised the transfer of prisoners and determined what their wishes were. When operation LITTLE SWITCH and BIG SWITCH were completed, the war ended.
Rhee attempts to sabotage agreement		There was an interesting side note. Syngman Rhee, president of South Korea, opposed UN control of the transfer process. He wanted to fight the war until Korea was unified. On 18 June 1953, he ordered his guard to release 25,000 North Korean prisoners who had made it known they did not wish to return to the North. This embarrassing act by our ally nearly ended the peace talks at Panmounjon. But the agreement held and the POW exchanges proceeded as planned.
[b.7]		HOW THE KOREAN WAR DISRUPTED AMERICAN LIFE
The war postponed needed reforms in America		First and foremost, the Korean War disrupted American life. The fear of international communism and the vision of millions of Chinese killing American boys in Korea had the following effects:
		Attention diverted from racism Attention diverted from the problems posed by segregation and poverty. Anticommunist hysteria kicked in with the McCarthy accusations. Hunting down suspected communists became the favorite past time of right wing witch hunters. Political opportunists like Joseph McCarthy gained popularity by accusing anyone he didn't like as being a communist; George Sokolsky, a journalist, was a one-man clearing house on whether you were a communist or not; and the National Association of Manufacturers began to crack down on labor again. Much needed social reforms at home had to wait for the 1960's.
[f.3]		HISTORIANS RE-EVALUATE EISENHOWER
Ike in control control		This is Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Commanders, Allied Forces Europe,1944-1945, 33rd President of the United States, 1952-1960. The image of "Ike" as a befuddled, grandfatherly president, has been refuted by historians. Eisenhower, they contend, firmly controlled the bellicose John Foster Dulles, his Secretary of State. He also made contact with Nikita Khruschev, the Soviet premier, thus reducing some cold war tension.
Nuclear proliferation & covert operations		While Eisenhower escapes blame for letting his administration run wild, he must bear the responsibility for allowing the US nuclear stockpile to grow immensely. In 1955, the US had 5,000 warheads; by 1960, that figure reached 20,000.
		Eisenhower also set a precedent for covert operations, authorizing the 1954 CIA overthrow of Jacobo Arbenz, the president of Guatemala, in favor of a right wing dictator.
		XWORD SOLUTION
		WWW LINKS RELATED TO CHAPTER 27
		Cold War International History Project Soviet Archives Exhibit Grolier's Encyclopedia Documentation and Diagrams of an the Atomic Bomb Enola Gay Perspectives Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and the Bomb A-Bomb WWW Museum High Energy Weapons Site Nuclear Stock Piles, 1945-1996 U.S. Nuclear Cost Study Project Venona--Soviet Espionage in US
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